2nd PUC Sociology Question Bank Chapter 5 Change and Development of Villages and Urbanisation in India

Students can Download 2nd PUC Sociology Chapter 5 Change and Development of Villages and Urbanisation in India Questions and Answers, Notes Pdf, 2nd PUC Sociology Question Bank with Answers helps you to revise the complete Karnataka State Board Syllabus and to clear all their doubts, score well in final exams.

Karnataka 2nd PUC Sociology Question Bank Chapter 5 Change and Development of Villages and Urbanisation in India

2nd PUC Sociology Change and Development of Villages and Urbanisation in India Text Book Questions and Answers

I. One Mark Questions.

Question 1.
State any one characteristic of village community.
Answer:
Small in Size: Indian villages are small in size. Due to that the density of population is less in Indian villages.

Question 2.
Who is Gramini?
Answer:
The head of the village was Gramini.

Question 3.
Mention any two Indian sociologists who have conducted village studies.
Answer:
M.N.Srinivas and Prof. Yogesh Atal.

Question 4.
Mention the name of the author of the book called ‘Rural Sociology in India.’
Answer:
A.R.Desai.

Question 5.
Define Urbanization.
Answer:
Urbanization is the movement of people from communities concerned chiefly or solely with agriculture to other communities generally larger whose activities are primarily centered in Government, trade, manufacture or allied activities. – Thompson Warren (encyclopedia of social sciences).

Question 6.
Define urban community.
Answer:
Urban community is a community with a high population density, a predominance of non-agriculture occupation, a high degree of specialization resulting in a complex division of labour and a formalized system of the Icoal Government. It is also characterized by the prevalence of impersonal secondary relations and dependence on formal social controls. – Theodorson.

Question 7.
Mention the two ancient cities of India.
Answer:
Mohenjadaro and Harappa.

Question 8.
Mention any one problem of village community.
Answer:
Illiteracy is a major social problem of Indian villages.

Question 9.
Mention any ancient city of Indian society.
Answer:
Kashi is one ancient city of Indian society.

Question 10.
Who considered Indian villages as little republics?
Answer:
Charles Met Calfe.

II. Two Marks Questions.

Question 11.
Write two characteristics of Indian villages.
Answer:
Characteristics of Villages of India:

Importance to Primary Relations: Small number of people shares a common and relationships close and intimate face to face relationship are common in village.
Social Homogeneity: Village is more homogeneous in language, belief, mores and pattern of behavior. In their occupation villages participate together and share common interests.

Question 12.
Write two major problems of India cities.
1. Sanitation and Pollution:
The inefficient and corrupt municipal administration has added to this problem. Lakhs of adults and children die or suffer from diarrhea, diphtheria, tetanus and measles etc. because of poor sanitation and hygiene. Cities and towns are major environmental polluters.

2. Transportation and Traffic:
Public transport is inadequate or lack connectivity. So private vehicles have increased leading to air pollution and its related diseases. Acute traffic congestion of traffic slows down travelling time and waste of productive time and costly fuel wastage.

Question 13.
Mention any two poverty alleviation programs.
Answer:

Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA).

Question 14.
Expand IRDP.
Answer:
Integrated Rural Development Programme.

Question 15.
What is a Slum?
Answer:
A Slum area means any area where such dwellings predominate of dilapidation, over-crowding, faulty arrangement of buildings, narrowness and faulty arrangements of street, lack of ventilation, lack of sanitation facilities, the inadequacy of open spaces and community facilities or any combination of these factors are detrimental to safety, health and morale.

These slum areas are also referred to as the ‘Blighted Area’, ‘Renewal Area’, ‘Deteriorated Area’, ‘Grey Area’, ‘Lower Class Neighbourhood’, ‘Lower Income Area’ etc.,

Question 16.
State any two characteristics of Slum.
Answer:

Dilapidated and Poor Houses: Slums are made of poor design and scrap materials. These are often raised on unauthorized land.
Lack of Public Utilities and Facilities: Lack of drainage, sanitation, water, electricity, health centres, sanitation and public parks etc., are widely observable characteristics of slums.

Question 17.
Mention any two poverty alleviation programs.
Answer:

Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA).

Question 18.
Define SEZ’s.
Answer:
Special Economic Zones:
SEZ is defined as an earmarked geographical area meant for the production of goods and services basically meant for the purpose of export where economic laws are different from the prevailing ones in other parts of the country.

Question 19.
Write any two characteristics of village communities of Pre-British India.
Answer:
1. Agriculture and Handicrafts:
A self-sufficient village, based on agriculture and handicrafts was a basic feature of Pre-British Indian Society.

2. Common Holdings
The village population was mainly composed of peasants. The village committee, representing the village community, which was the de-facto owner of the village land, distributed this land among the peasant families in the form of holdings. Each holdings was cultivated by the peasant family by means of the collective labour of its members.

III. Five Marks Questions.

Question 20.
Explain the characteristics of village.
Answer:
Characteristics of Villages of India

Small in size: Indian villages are small in size. Due to that the density of population is less in Indian Villages.
Importance to Primary Relations: Small number of people share a common and relationships close and intimate face to face relationships are common in vilalge.
Social Homogeneity: Village is more homogeneous in language, belief, mores and pattern of behavior. In their occupation villages participate together and share common interests.
Informal Social Control: Individual behavior is controlled by family, traditions, customs, religion etc.,
Agriculture and Its allied occupation: Agriculture is the main source of livelihood and the land is the source of production. Along with agriculture, animal husbandry, floriculture, fishing, mining and apiculture and cottage industries are the other occupations.
Rule of Neighbourhood and simplicity of life: Neighbourhood relation plays important role m social life of village people and simple way of life is common.
Village Autonomy: Each village is relatively self-sufficient and independent. ‘Charles Metcalfe’ called ’Indian villages are little republics’ having nearly everything that they want within themselves and almost independent of foreign relations. Recent studies proved that the Indian villages were never self-sufficient and republic.

Question 21.
Explain the importance of Village Studies.
Answer:
Importance of Village Studies:
India is a land of villages. Majority of its population is to be found in villages. After Independence planners and administrators are busy collecting data on village communities for the practical tasks of social and agricultural reconstruction.
Importance of Village Studies are summarised as:
1. Field work is an Antidote to Book View:
According to M.N.Srinivas, studies of Indian villages, communities would be of great significance for planners and administrators. Information provided by a sociologist is based on his intensive fieldwork experience and no account of book knowledge can ever be a substitute for this.

M.N.Srinivas undertook to study ‘Rampura Village’ near Mysore, with a view to highlight the agricultural practices of the Indian peasant can be understood in the context of his technology, level of knowledge, legal and social institutions, religion and way of life. M.N.Srinivas has recorded this work in his book ‘Remembered Village’.

2. Calculated Opposition to Change:
The peasant has always been represented as extremely conservative, pigheaded, ignorant and superstitious. But sociological studies do not subscribe to this view. Mekim Marriot’s study of ’Kishan Garhi’ Village in U.P revels that peasants accepted new crops, techniques of cultivation etc and had opposed only few changes.

There are key persons in each village who oppose and exploit changes to their benefit. If he opposes the tool or process, it is not because of his stupidity but because of his intelligence. Only a field study could shed light on the aspects which other wise go unnoticed.

3. Literary Bias:
The literature on caste states that caste is immobile. This is not a fact, through Sanskritization, castes have tried to move up on the local hierarchy. Condition of women prevalent among the upper castes were generalised to include all Hindus. But, the truth is that the women of lower castes are better placed in comparison to women of upper castes.

Observation of Hindu social life has been vitiated by book view and the upper view may be biased and need not be a fact always. Field studies suggest something different from what is found in religious text. Field research can help to overcome literary bias and accept facts about village communities.

4. Recording for Later Evaluation:
’Roots of the present are always found in the past and an analysis of the present would guide the future’. Hence,, a comparison and evaluation of the impact of planned change at a latter date necessarily demand that the present be recorded’ – Prof. Yogish Atal.

5. Development of Analytical Categories:
Field studies conducted in different, parts of the country has helped in developing Analytical categories and to the existence of certain processes of change which have been labeled either locally or on an all India basis. For instance.

Analytical Models like Sanskritization and Westernization (M.N.Srinivas), Kul initiation, (N.Prasad), De-Sanskritization (Majumdar), Universalisation and Parochialisation (Mekim Marriot), Great tradition and little tradition (Rober Red Field) etc., have helped in analysis of transformation that the village communities are undergoing. A.R.Desai’s Rural sociology in India is important work.

6. Village Studies are important for Social Reformation:
Prof. Ramakrishna Mukherjee’s analysis makes it clear that the village has become the centre of all discussions and debates. Plan, Budget, Administrative Strategy, etc., all have become rural area oriented. Thus, planners, economists, administrators, sociologists, reformers concentrate on villages and are busy collecting data on them.

Under the impact of planned and non-directed changes, villages are undergoing transformation. Thus, there is a need for the study of village communities in India.

Question 22.
Describe the Social problems of Indian Villages.
Answer:
Social Problems, of Indian Villages:
1. Illiteracy:
Illiteracy is a major social problem in Indian villages. Lack of educational institutions and poor quality education coupled with high rate of dropout rate has aggravated the situation. Majority of educational institutions have inadequate infrastructure – building, libraries, sports ground etc.,

Disparity among rural and urban regions regarding educational opportunities. Basic facilities like drinking .water, sanitation facilities, transport and communication are not up to the mark.

2. Rural Poverty:
An empirical study in seven districts in Rajasthan in 1996 sponsored by the World Bank has identified the following causes of poverty in rural areas:

Inadequate and ineffective implementation of anti-poverty programs.
Low percentage of the population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits.
Non-availability of irrigational facilities and erratic rainfall.
Dependence on traditional methods of cultivation and inadequate modern skills.
Non-availability of electricity for agriculture.
Poor quality of livestock.
Imperfect an exploiting credit market, communication facilities and market.
Low level of education.
Absence of dynamic community leadership.
Failure to seek women’s co-operation in developmental activities and associating them with planned programs.
Spending a large percentage of annual earnings on social ceremonies like festivals, marriages, funeral ceremonies, people are unwilling to discard expensive customs.

3. Health problems:
About 74% of doctors are in urban areas. Though 70 % of people live in villages, the extent of provision of skilled medical facilities is lacking. The fertility rate, birth and death rates are very high. Infant mortality and maternal mortality are also high. Mal-nutrition, outbreak of epidemic diseases like cholera, malaria, plague, dengue and other communicable diseases is very high.

Unsanitary housing and addiction to alcohol and nicotine make health conditions even worse. Pesticides like ‘ endosulfan have created health hazards in rural areas. More than 5000 people are affected by endosulfan in the Uttara Kannada district alone. Excessive use of chemicals and fertilizers has degraded soil fertility affecting the yield of crops and the health of farmers.

Question 23.
List out the agricultural problems of Indian Villages.
Answer:
1. Discriminatory Policies:
State policies have let down farmers and lift them in a disadvantaged position. This fact is made abundantly clear by Analysts. Policies have widened the gap between the net incomes of farmers and agri-laborers and other professions. Policy failure aggravated the situation in the 1990’s.

Successive droughts, inadequate prices and low- yields took a toll on rural farming. This was compounded by the economic reforms which took the agri-sector for granted.

2. The vulnerability of the Agricultural Sector:
Agriculture sector operates under a large number of constraints. State policies dictate prices of most of the factors of production required for agriculture, electricity, water, fertilizers, pesticides and minimum wages. The credit market operations are largely dictated by the credit policy of the Central bank, as well as the difficulties in access to credit.

Difficulties in accessing institutional credit compel farmers to approach money-lenders and a new-emerging institutions the input dealer. Weather uncertainties, availability of irrigation water and inputs like fertilizers and pesticides are a cause of concern.

These are compounded by-product market imperfections and the price fluctuations that the farmer faces. The process of Globalization intensified some of these concerns, both because of the prominence of trade and the resulting commercialization process in the Agricultural sector.

3. The increasing cost of cultivation and Environmental Degradation:
Increasing cost of cultivation and environmental degradation on one side due to significant increase in the input prices, technology and un-protected farming based on the monsoon, on the other makes the farmers vulnerable. One of the major changes in the agrarian structure has been a growing predominance of small and marginal farmers leading to marginalization of the peasantry itself.

High input costs and low output prices leave them with poor returns. The ecological crisis in rural regions where declining water tables, loss of agricultural biodiversity, and the onset of the range of plant diseases and pests have become a challenge to the conduct of agriculture.

4. Deliberate withdrawal of State Welfare Programmes:
The capitalistic agriculture in India thrived because of the state welfare role for providing infrastructure, irrigation, and credit through international agencies. The gradual reduction in the state investment in agriculture was also instrumental in the decline in agricultural productivity and production.

The partial withdrawal of subsidy given to farmers or to agriculture. The free electricity given to farmers for agriculture was withdrawn and electricity tariff increased drastically.

5. Globalization Resultant Competition and Exploitation by Corporate:
The spate of farmer’s suicides that have surfaced in India was the result of the performance of the Agri-sector, along with the other factors that were prominent including the advent of WTO (World Trade Org), Genetically Modified (GM) Varieties, price collapse, and spurious seeds.

The adoption of ‘World Trade Organization model of agriculture’ or the ’Mckinse Model of Development’ that created spaces for industry driven agriculture with ultimately resulted in agri-business development including information technology. This model of development has not only exacerbated the crisis leading to an environmental catastrophe but also destroyed millions of rural livelihood.

6. Peculiar Banking Practices and Non-availability of Loans from Institutional Sources:
Two types of institutional finances are available for agriculture. In Karnataka, commercial banks and the regional rural banks, disburse loans. These are professional bankers and they require a considerable amount of paperwork (formalities) to obtain credit. These documents are not easily available due to official lethargy and corruption and the process is delayed.

Co-operative credit is limited due to various impediments. National Bank of Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) refinance co-operative bankers and imposes rigid conditions for disbursing loans and recovery of credit. Primary credit co-operative societies in the under-developed regions have lower repayment performance.

So these societies do not get an adequate supply of credit for forwarding loans. Eventually, farmers have to depend on informal sources of credit, with high interest rates which proves detrimental to the farmers.

7. The Failure of the Co-operative sector:
This sector could have helped the farmers in over-coming debts. But the failure of the Karnataka Government to check the growth of money-lenders failed to make the co-operative movement a success. There are 32,382 co-operative societies at the village level. 40% of them are under heavy losses and 20% of them are defunct or liquidated.

8. Dependence on Ground Water for Irrigation:
Irrigation is another major source for Agri-growth. The actual area under canal and tank irrigation has been declining since the 1990’s. Also, there is a phenomenal increase in the dependency on groundwater resources like wells and borewells. The over harnessing of groundwater and failure of monsoon has depleted the groundwater level and resulted in the decline of the surface area of irrigated land.

Question 24.
Explain the Community Development Programme.
Answer:
Community Development Programme (CDP):
The planning commission in their first five year plan has described the community development programme as the method through which five year plan seeks to initiate a process of transformation of the social and economic life of the villages. The community development program was inaugurated on October 2nd, 1992.

It is a programme of aided self-help to be planned and implemented by the villages themselves, with the Government offering only technical guidance and financial assistance.
Objective of Community Development Programme:

The maximum possible increase in Agri-Production.
To solve the problem of unemployment in the villages.
To provide safe drinking water facilities.
To develop the mass communication in the villages.
To improve the centres of primary education, public health and recreation in the villages.
To improve the conditions of houses.
To encourage cottage industries and indigenous handicrafts.

The long term objections of CDP is to complete planned development of all physical and human resources to provide all villages with full employment. The goal of CDP is the development of villages in such a way that the citizens may not lack anything which is the ideal of a welfare state and that everyone should get adequate food and progress socially, morally and economically.

Question 25.
Write a short note on SEZ’s.
Answer:
Special Economic Zones:
SEZ is defined as an earmarked geographical area meant for production of goods and services basically meant for the purpose of export where economic laws are different from the prevailing ones in other parts of the country. Special facilities are provided to the firms operating in SEZ’s in terms of tax concessions and infrastructural set ups as well as regulatory incentive.

SEZ can be set up in the public sector, private sector, or joint sector or even by State Governments in collaboration with any corporate. The proposals for setting upto of SEZ’s in the agro-sector to boost the exports food and agro products, which benefit the farmers of the country. SEZs are deemed to be foreign territory for the purposes of land occupation, trade operations, duties and tariffs.

It is also being alleged that fertile agricultural land is being converted into SEZs at subsidised rates. The land is acquired at a subsidised rate, and the compensation given to the land owner is far less than the market prices. It also gives rise to income disparities and led the rich to become richer. These special economic zones exploiting labour and displacing livelihoods in the agrarian economy.

The agrarian policy of the Government of India and the State Government are against the interests of the vulnerable sections. The case in point is that of the Special Economic Zones (SEZ) policy whereby the State Government are acquiring lands under the Land Acquisition Act for industrialists and Corporate Agencies.

Thus the marginal and small farmers are rendered landless. There is strong resistance by farmers and agricultural laborers throughout the country but yet the land is being acquired forcefully. Some farmers have also lost their lives in this process,

Question 26.
Write the impact of British rule on Indian Village Communities of Pre-British India.
Answer:
Impact of British Rule on Indian Villages:
Indian villages in British rule lost much of the internal cohesion, many of the administrative duties were taken up into the hands of the central Government and its sub-ordinate agencies. The administration was carried out through bureau criticised officers.
The disappearance of Indian village communities can be summarized as follows:
1. The Britishers discontinued the grant to the village fund from village revenue. This affected the beneficial activities which were carried out by the village councils panchayats.

2. The establishment of regular law court -civil and criminal deprived the village elders of their power and prestige. The village dispute that could have been solved easily was taken to the courts in town.

3. Rural-Urban migration also contributed in some measure for the decay of village councils. Absence of sufficient avenues for utilizing best elements in the village itself at the one end and availability of better opportunity,,in the city on the other hand forced many to move toward cities.

4. The Britishers introduced new system of revenue collecting and land settlement. The Zamindari system created grow inequality and also affected the relationship between classes raining the village community.

5. In spite of this, it must be recognized that,by bringing the village agricultural production within the sphere of Indian and world markets, by making agriculture an organic part of Indian economy, the British rule over India elevated I ndian agriculture to the status of a national agriculture. This was a progressive aspect of the British conquest.

Since agriculture became national in character, its problems also assumed national significance. Hence, such problems as the decline of agriculture, the deterioration of livestock, the poverty and indebtedness of the peasantry, subdivision and fragmentation of land, became national problems. Thus the problems of agriculture and the conditions of the agriculturists all became national problems.

IV Ten Marks Questions.

Question 27.
Describe briefly Indian Villages through the ages.
Answer:
Indian Villages through the ages:
The origin of the village cannot be exactly dated. The rise of the ‘village’ is bound up with the rise of the agricultural economy.
1. Villages during vedic times:
Villages existed in pre-aryan Indian society. Pre-vedic tribal community was organised under its own headman or chief. The co-operative life and common ownership of land were the main features of these communities. According to rigveda, society is divided into many dynamic, hierarchical groups, smallest unit of the society is the family.

Many such families constitue one village. Many villages put together from one ‘vish’. Many such ‘vishas’ taken together give one ‘Jana’ and ‘Janas’ together make on ‘Rastra’. The head of the village was ’Gramini’. There were also ‘Sabna’ and ‘Samithis’ in villages to look after village administration.

2. Villages during epic period:
(A) Description of village in Ramayana:
Ramayana speaks of two types of villages. They are,
(I) The ‘Gosh’ headed by ‘Gosh- mahattar’:
Gosh was smaller than the Gram. Ramayana also mentions Gramini as another village official. Gramini being appointed by the King, was working strictly as per the advices of the village elders. Gramini was the executive head of the village and yet he could not act against the customary practices of the village. In case of deviance from accepted practices, village elders corrected the Gramini practices, village elders corrected the Gramini.
Functions of Gramini:

Village defence
To collect revenue and to maintain records of the realisation
He also had some judicial functions of perform.

(B) Description of village in Mahabharatha:
As described in Mahabharatha, there were forts constructed for the purpose of defence of the local groups. The population surrounding the fort was called the village. Villages were grouped together and a group of 10 villages (Dasha-grama) headed byDasha Gramini.

3. Description of Village in Smrithis:
‘Manusmrithi’ also contains a description of village and inter-village organisation. ’Gramik’ is the head of the village who is to report any mal-adjustments in the village to the next higher official. Gramik was in charge of village administration. He was to collect revenue and other dues which the inhabitants of the village one towards the king.

The next higher official in the order was ’Dashi’, one in¬charge of the administration of ten villages. Over him there was ‘Vishanti’, in-charge of twenty villages. Dashi was to report to ‘vishanti’ and in turn ‘vishanti’ was reporting to ‘Shat- Gramadhipati’ who headed 100 villages. Abore him was the head of 100 villages called ‘Sahasra- Gramadhipathi’.

Thus, during this period village was the basic unit of administration and for this purpose villages were grouped at various levels. Kautilya’s’ Arthashastra’ reflects village community in its various dimensions. Kautilya said’that village boundaries should be demarcated by rivers, hill, forest, ditches, trees etc.,

According to him, village should be situated at a distance of one ‘Krosha’ i.e, two kilometers so that in times of need one village may help another. The villages were organised under unions of 10, called ‘Samgrahana’ of 200 called ‘Karratika’ of 400 called Dronamukha’ and of 800 villages consituting a ‘Mahagrama’.

Administratively, was termed ‘Shayna’ which was a centre of trade and fairs of the neighboring villages. On the basis of the size of population, the villages were divided into three categories.

Joista – Big villages
Madhyama – Medium sized villages
Kanishtas – Small villages

Types of villages for revenue purpose:

Gramagras – ordinary villages paying usual revenues.
Pariharak – revenue-free villages given to priests, teachers – as salary – for services in the field of education and dharma.
Aydhuja – revenue free – for supply of trained soldiers.
Villages which paid taxes in kind.

Village administrative staff comprised the ‘Adhyaksha’ (Headman), the ’Samkhayaka’ (Accountant), ‘Sthanikas’ (Officials of different grades), ‘Anikastha’ (Veterinary doctor) and ‘Jamgha Krishika’ (village couriers), Besides, there were persons to care for village sanitation,, horse trainers, etc., who were granted non-alienable rent-free land.

4. Description of Villages in the Medieval Period:
In this period village was a political unit linked to the city, paragana and province. The administration of village panchayat was left in the hand of local village panchayat. There was a village chowkidar in every village. Normally, the state officers did not interfere in the affairs of the village. Only if need be the local officials were given directions. The village panchayat looked after the security, sanitation, education, etc., in the village.

Question 28.
Describe the Characteristics of Village.
Answer:
Characteristics of Villages of India:

Small in size: Indian villages are small in size. Due to that the density of population is less in Indian Villages.
Importance to Primary Relations: Small number of people shares a common and relationships close and intimate face to face relationship are common in vilalge.
Social Homogeneity: Village is more homogeneous in language, belief, mores and pattern of behaviour. In their occupation villages participate together and share common interests.
Informal Social Control: Individual behaviour is controlled by family, traditions, customs, relition etc.,
Agriculture and Its allied occupation: Agriculture is the main source of livelihood and the land is the source of production. Along with agriculture, animal husbandry, floriculture, fishing, mining and apiculture and cottage industries are the other occupations.
Rule of Neighbourhood and simplicity of life: Neighbourhood relation plays important role in social life of village people and simple way of life is common.
Village Autonomy: Each village is relatively self-sufficient and independent. ‘Charles Metcalfe’ called ‘Indian villages are little republics’ having nearly everything that they want within themselves and almost independent of foreign relations. Recent studies proved that the Indian villages were never self-sufficient and republic.

Question 29.
Explain Agrarian Crisis and Farmers Suicide in Karnataka.
Answer:
Agrarian Crises and Farmers Suicide in Karnataka:
is a field work based study conducted by R.S.Deshapande and Saroja Aroara. The study was conducted by center for rural studies, Lai Bahadur Shastri National Academy and Administration Missoori, in 2007. This volume deals with the problems of farmers’ suicide across the state. Agrarian crisis in Karnataka can be understood in the following way.

The Indian state now acknowledges the fact that between 1993 and 2003, 100,248 farmers committed suicide in India. Suicide is not confined to Karnataka alone but also reported in UP, AP, Kerala, Orrisa etc., Karnataka has no history of farmers committing suicide even during the situation of acute agrarian crisis.

Even the unorganized farmers would resort to tactics like throwing agricultural commodities on roads or burning their crops. However, suicide was an attempt to retain the identity as a distinct social category within the larger economy.

In this context the report of the Agricultural Department, between 2003 and 2007 (up to 1 st January 2007) a total of 1193 farmers committed suicide on the contrary, the central Government claimed that committed suicide – which is the highest figure when compared to any other state infact Maharashtra is relegated to third position in the suicide rate.

However if we calculate the statistics provided by request committee report, including other press reports one can estimate the number of suicides is more than 5000. Nonetheless, if we take the report prepared by the Crime Branch of Karnataka, the number of suicides under the heading ‘farming and agricultural activity’ comes to 15,804 between 1998 and 2002.

A recent ’suicide census’ conducted by the Movement against state repression has estimated that 40,000 have committed suicide between 1997 and 2005. This number might be slightly exaggerated. The Government estimated that in total 21,16 farmers committed suicide between 1998 and 2005.

However, the recent reports say that close to 150,000 Indian farmers committed suicide in nine years from 1997 to 2005. While from suicides have occurred in many states, nearly two thirds of these deaths are concentrated in five, states – Maharashtra, Karnataka, AP, Madhya Pradesh and Kerala where just a third of the country’s population lives.

The National Social Watch Coalition (NCWC) says that atleast 11,387 farmers have committed suicide between 2001 and 2006. Region-wise the highest suicide rate was reported from old Mysore areas, followed by the old Bombay presidency areas and the old Hyderabad region. The old Madras presidency area, as well as coorg also reported suicides, however their number is less.

In fact, old Mysore and old Bombay presidency areas are better known for canal irrigation. Here the suicides reflect most of those who committed suicide lived near the tail end of the canal. Suicides begat? in the year 1998, when Bidar farmers who cultivated tur- dal, a market oriented crop, committed suicide.

In the two years, farmer suicides were concentrated in drought-prone districts of north Karnataka or confined to economically backward, drought-prone regions such as Gulbarga and Bidar. However, after 2000, the phenomenon shifted to relatively advanced agricultural regions, particularly Mandya, Hassan, Shimoga, Davanagere, Koppal and Even Chikkamangalur and Kodagu.

Question 30.
Explain the importance of Village Studies.
Answer:
Importance of Village Studies:
Indian is a land of villages. Majority of its population is to be found in villages. After Independence planners and administrators are busy collecting data on village communities for the practical tasks of social and agricultural reconstruction.
Importance of Village Studies are summarised as:
1. Fieldwork is an Antidote to Book View:
According to M.N.Srinivas, studies of Indian villages, communities would be of great significance for planners and administrators. Information provided by a sociologist is based on his intensive fieldwork experience and no account of book knowledge can ever be a substitute for this.

M.N.Srinivas, undertook to study ‘Rampura Village’ near Mysore, with a view to highlighting the agricultural practices of the Indian peasant can only be understood in the context of his technology, level of knowledge, legal and social institutions, religion and way of life. M.N.Srinivas has recorded this work in his book ‘Remembered Village’.

2. Calculated Opposition to Change:
The peasant has always been represented as extremely conservative, pigheaded, ignorant and superstitious. But sociological studies donot subscribe to this view. Mekim Marriot’s study of Kishan Garhi Village in U.P revels that peasants accepted new crops, techniques of cultivation etc and had opposed only few changes.

3. Literary Bias:
Literature on caste states that caste is immobile. This is not a fact, through Sanskritization, castes have tried to move up on the local hierarchy. Condition of women prevalent among the upper castes were generalized to include all Hindus. But, the truth is that the women of lower castes are better placed in comparison to women of upper castes.

Observation of Hindu social life has been vitiated by book view and upper view may be biased and need not be a fact always. Field studies suggest something different from what is found in religions text. Field research can help to overcome literary bias and accept facts about village communities.

4. Recording for Later Evaluation:
‘Roots of the present are always found in the past and an analysis of the present would guide the future’. Hence, a comparison and evaluation of the impact of planned change at a latter date necessarily demands that the present be recorded’. – Prof. Yogish Atal.

5. Development of Analytical Categories:
Field studies conducted in different parts of the country has helped in developing Analytical categories and to the existence of certain processes of change which have been labelled either locally or on an all India basis.

For instance, Analytical Models like Sanskritization and Westernization (M. N.Srinivas), Kulinisation, (N.Prasad), De-Saiiskritization (Majumdar), Universalisation and Parochialisation (Mekim Marriot), Great tradition and little tradition (Rober Red Field) etc., have helped in analysis of transformation that the village communities are undergoing. A.R.Desai’s Rural sociology in India is an important work.

Thus, planners, economists, administrators, sociologists, reformers concentrate on villages and are busy collecting data on them. Under the impact of planned and non-directed changes, villages are undergoing transformation. Thus, there is a need for the study of village communities in India.

Question 31.
Explain the Agricultural and Economic problems of Indian Villages..
Answer:
Economic and Agricultural Problems:
Economic growth in contemporary India is marked by considerable disparities of region arid class. The Nobel-Prize winning’ economist Amartya Sen worries that, ‘as these inequalities intensify, one half of India will come to look and live like California, the other half like Sub- Saharan Africa.’

Already, prosperity co-exists with misery, technological sophistication with human degradation. Following are the important economic and agricultural problems.
1. Discriminatory Policies:
State policies have let down farmers and lift them in a dis-advantaged position. This fact is made abundantly clear by Analysts. Policies have widened the gap between the net incomes of farmers and agri-laborers and other professions.

Policy failure aggravated the situation in the 1990’s. Successive droughts, inadequate prices and low yields took a toll on rural farming. This was compounded by the economic reforms which took the agri-sector for granted.

Difficulties in accessing institutional credit compel farmers to approach money-lenders and new-emerging institutions;. the input dealer. Weather -uncertainties, availability of irrigation water and inputs like fertilizers and pesticides are a cause of concern.

These are compounded by product market imperfections and the price fluctuations that the farmer faces. The process of Globalization intensified some of these concerns, both because of the prominence of trade and the resulting commercialization process in the Agricultural sector.

3. Increasing cost of cultivation and Environmental Degradation:
Increasing cost of cultivation and environmental degradation on one side due to significant increase in the input prices, technology and un-protected farming based on the monsoon, on the other makes, the farmers vulnerable. One of the major changes in the agrarian structure has been a growing predominance of small and marginal farmers leading to marginalization of the peasantry itself.

High input costs and low output prices leave them with poor returns. The.ecological crisis in rural regions where declining water tables, loss of agricultural bio-diversity and the onset of the range of plant diseases and pests have become a challenge to the conduct of agriculture.

4. Deliberate withdrawal of State Welfare Programmes:
The capitalistic agriculture in India thrived because of state welfare role for providing infrastructure, irrigation and credit through international agencies. The gradual reduction in the state investment in agriculture was also instrumental in the decline in agricultural productivity and production.

The partial withdrawal of subsidy given to farmers or to agriculture. The free electricity given to farmers for agriculture was withdrawn and electricity tariff increased drastically.

5. Globalization Resultant Competition and Exploitation by Corporate:
The spate of farmers suicides that have surfaced in India was the result of the performance of the Agri-sector, along with the other factors that were prominent including advent of WTO I (World Trade Org), Genetically i Modified (GM) Varities, price collapse and spurious seeds.

The adoption of ‘World Trade Organization model of agriculture’ or the ‘Mckinseg Model of Development’ that created spaces for industry driven agriculture with ultimately resulted in agri-business development including information technology. This model of development has not only exacerbated the crisis leading to an environmental catastrophe but also destroyed millions of rural livelihood.

6. Peculiar Banking Practices and Non-availability of Loans from Institutional Sources:
Two types of institutional finances are available for agriculture. In Karnataka, commercial banks and the regional rural banks, disburse loans. These are professional bankers and they require considerable amount of paper work (formalities) to obtain credit. These documents are not easily available due to official lethargy and corruption and the process in delayed.

Co-operative credit is limited due various impediments. National Bank of Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) refinance co-operative bankers and imposes rigid conditions for disbursing loans and recovery of credit. Primary credit co-operative societies in the under-developed regions have lower repayment performance.

So these societies do not get adequate supply of credit for forwarding loans. Eventually farmers have to depend on informal sources of credit, with high interest rates which proves detrimental to the farmers.

7. The Failure of Co-operative sector:
This sector could have helped the farmers in over-coming debts. But the failure of Karnataka Government to check the growth of money-lenders failed to make the co-operative movement a success. There are 32,382 co-operative societies at village level. 40% of them are under heavy losses and 20% of them are defunct or liquidated.

8. Dependence on Ground Water for Irrigation:
Irrigation is another major source for Agri-growth. The actual area under canal and tank irrigation has been declining since the 1990’s. Also, there is a phenomenal increase in the dependency on ground water resources like wells and borewells. The over harnessing of ground water and failure of monsoon has depleted ground water level and resulted in the decline of surface area of irrigated land.

Question 32.
Discuss the Methodical analysis of Former’s Suicide in India.
Answer:
Methodological Analysis of Farmer’s Suicide:
Methodological Analysis of Farmers Suicides was conducted by R.S.Deshapande. The study required understanding the incidence as the culmination of four factors as discussed below.
1. Events:
Among the ‘events’, crop loss, failure of borewell, price-crash, daughter’s marriage, family problems and property disputes are included.

2. Stressors:
These become ‘stressors’ (stress creators) when two or more such ‘events’ cluster together, specifically, illness of the individual or any of the family or land related problems usually act as ‘stressors’. These become lethal combination with the ‘events’ but further ignition comes through the actors/catalysts and ‘trigger’ incidence.

3. Actors:
Actors/ catalysts create a sense of ‘insecurity’ or ‘insult’ to the potential victim. These include the money¬lender, banker, spouse, relatives and close friends.

4. Triggers :
On the background of the ‘events’ and ‘stressors’ the ‘actors/catalysts’ fire the final act by forcing an occasion to be the ‘trigger’ for the unfortunate incident. Giv~n this complex nature of the phenomena it certainly becomes difficult to pin point one particular reason for the suicide.

Emile Durkheim’s Monograph on sucide indicates growing alienation of individual from the family, society and religion as a factor responsible for suicide. According to Durkreim suicides indicate social disintegration. Among the reasons cited in various studies associated with suicide indebtedness is one of the reasons but it is not the only risk factor.

Multiple risk factors feed into each other and reinforce each other. In addition to the weather related uncertainties, the farmer is also faced with market (increasing costs and output price shocks), technology, spurious inputs and credit-related vulnerabilities. In the absence of risk mitigation strategies the farmer is at the receiving end. Under stress some farmers end up committing suicide.

Studies indicate that suicides are occurring in the high and medium growth states and are conspicuously absent in the backward states like BIMARU (Bihar, Madhyapradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh). Scholars have articulated ‘High Aspirations’ or the thrust for upward mobility in the absence of pubic policy support, as a major, causation for suicides in the backward areas of medium growth states.

Question 33.
Write a chart and explanation fro the Agrarian crisis with other factors.
Answer:

1. Discriminatory Policies:
State policies have let down formers and left them in a dis-advantages position. This fact is made abundantly clear by Analysts. Policies have widened the gap between the net incomes of farmers and agri-labourers and other professions.

Policy failure aggravated the situation in the 1990’s. Successive droughts, in adequate prices and low- yields took a toll on rural farming. This was compounded by the economic reforms which took the agri-sector for granted.

2. The vulnerability of the Agricultural Sector:
The agriculture sector operates under a large number of constraints. State policies dictate prices of most of the factors of production required for agriculture; electricity, water, fertilizers, pesticides and minimum wages. The credit market operations are largely dictated by the credit policy of the Central Bank, as well as the difficulties in access to credit.

Difficulties in accessing institutional credit compel farmers to approach money-lenders and a new emerging institutions; the input dealer. Weather uncertainties, availability of irrigation water and inputs like fertilizers and pesticides are a cause of concern.

3. Increasing cost of Cultivation and Environmental Degradation:
Increasing cost of cultivation and environmental degradaton on one side due to a significant increase in the input prices, technology and un-protected farming based on the monsoon on the other makes the farmers vulnerable. One of the major changes in the agrarian structure has been a growing pre-dominant of small and marginal farmers leading to marginalization of the peasantry itself.

High input costs and low output prices leave them with poor returns. The ecological crisis in rural regions where declining water tables, loss of agricultural bio-diversity and the onset of a range of plant diseases and pests have become a challenge to the conduct of Agriculture.

4. Deliberate withdrawal of State Welfare Programmes:
The capitalistic agriculture in India thrived because of state welfare role for providing infrastructure, irrigation and credit through International agencies. The gradual reduction in the state investment in agriculture was also instrumental in the decline in agricultural productivity and production.

The partial withdrawal of subsidy given to farmers or to agriculture. The free electricity given to farmers for agriculture was withdrawn and electricity tariff increased drastically.

5. Globalisation resultant competition and Exploitation by corporates:
The spate of farmers suicides that have surfaced in India was the result of the performance of the agri-sector, along with the other factors that were prominent including advent of WTO (World Trade Org), Genetically Modified (GM) Varieties, price collapse and spurious seeds.

The adoption of ‘World Trade Organization Model of Agriculture’ ‘ the ‘Mckinseg Modal of Development’ that created spaces for industry driven agriculture with ultimately resulted in agri-business development including information technology. This model of development has not only exacerbated the crisis leading to an environmental catastrophe but also destroyed millions of rural livelihood.

These are professional bankers and they require considerable amount of paper work (formalities) to obtain credit. These documents are not easily available due to official lethargy and corruption and the process in delayed.

Co-operative credit is limited due various impediments. National Bank of Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) refinances co-operative bankers and imposes rigid conditions for disbursing loans and recovery of credit. Primary credit co-operative societies in the under-developed regions have lower repayment performance.

7. The Failure of Co-operative Sector:
This sector could have helped the farmers in over-coming debts. But the failure of Karnataka Government to check the growth of money lenders failed to make the co-operative movement a success. There are 32,382 co-operative societies at village level. 40% of them are under heavy losses and 20% of them are defunct or liquidated.

8. Dependence on Ground Water For Irrigation:
Irrigation is another major source for Agri-growth. The actual area under canal and tank irrigation has been declining since the 1990’s. Also, there is a phenomenal increase in the dependency on ground water resources like wells and borewells. The over¬harnessing of ground water and the failure of monsoon has depleted ground water level and resulted in the decline of the surface area of irrigated land.

Question 34.
Write the recent policy initiatives for Rural Development.
Answer:
There are two major types of policies which are:
1. Production Oriented Activities:
Targeting production and services for example subsidized fertilizers, providing irrigation, credit, locating village industries and so on. These types of activities are defined as rural and development measures. These activities are defined- as rural development measures.

These activities may affect either the whole community or a particular section of the community. For example, community development projects land reforms, Panchayat Raj, poverty .alleviation programs like integrated rural development program etc.,

2. Non-production Oriented Activities:
Targeting living standards for example, Tribal Development Programme (1959), Drought Prone Area Programme (1979), Food for Work Programme (1977), National Rural Employment Programme (1980). Some programs aimed at increasing assets, and benefiting people economically, while others aimed at social upliftment of people and some programs are etc., while some others were politically motivated, for example Garibi Hatao, and 20 point programs.

However the basic aims are achieving community participation, removal of social evils and improving the quality of life. In this background various intiatives like Land reforms, Green Revolution, Panchayat Raj, Community Development Programme, IRDP and MGNRAGA were intiated.

2nd PUC Sociology Change and Development of Villages and Urbanisation in India Additional Questions and Answers

I. One Mark Questions.

Question 1.
Mention the two types of villages described in Ramayana.
Answer:
Gosh and Gram.

Question 2.
Mention a function of Gramin.
Answer:
Village Defence.

Question 3.
Who wrote ‘Arthashastra’.
Answer:
Kautilya.

Question 4.
What was the main occupation of villagers in the pre-British period?
Answer:
Agriculture and handicrafts.

Question 5.
Who said ‘Kingdoms rose and collapsed but the self-sufficient village survived.
Answer:
Charles Met Calf.’

Question 6.
About which village in Karnataka did M.N.Srinivas the sociologist undertake a study?
Answer:
Rampura village (Mysore District).

Question 7.
Which book did M.N.Srinivas write about his field study.
Answer:
Remembered village programmes. However, the basic aims are achieving community participation, removal of social evils and improving the quality of life. In this background, various intiatives like Land reforms, Green Revolution, Panchayat Raj, Community Development Programme, IRDP and MGNRAGA were initiated.

Question 8.
Which model of development trigged agrarian crisis.
Answer:
W.T.O’s – Me Kinsey Modal of development.

Question 9.
Who wrote the book ‘Agrarian Crisis and Farmer Suicide’.
Answer:
R.S.Deshpande and Saroja Arona.

Question 10.
Give one factor for farmer suicide.
Answer:
Events.

Question 11.
Name one Agrarian Committee.
Answer:
Dwarkanath Committee (2000).

Question 12.
Mention one recent Agrarian Policy Initiatives.
Answer:
Loan waivers and relief.

Question 13.
Mention one recommendation of G.K.Veeresh Committee.
Answer:
Creation of farmer’s welfare fund.

Question 14.
What is Rural Development.
Answer:
Rural Development is a strategy designed to improve the economic and social life of a specific group of 5 people the rural people.